AAR Session 5 (3/12/10) : Christian History and Theology

"Edith Stein: a Voice for Social Change" -- Marian Maskulak, St. John's University

Edith Stein was known as an associate of Husserl, a Catholic convert, and eventually a casualty at Auschwitz. While her writings are mainly in phenomenology, Ms. Maskulak argues that Stein's life and writings support the assertion that she is also a social reformer.

Stein wrote in the areas of philosophy, theology, anthropology, and in particular, phenomenology. She suggests that community is the foundation of human life, and that we need to develop as a human race, in relation to one another. This occurs beneficially through empathy; empathy allows me to distinguish between my "I" and another's "I", a subject to subject relationship rather than a subject to object relationship. When people associate in a subject/object manner, it is usually selfish and manipulative--they are seeing how another person can serve their needs. Subject/subject association is not possible without community. In order to make an impression, one must approach others as subjects. The community-oriented person is more genuine, surrendering themselves to the person or situation they encounter.

In 1921, Stein wrote "What is Essential to a State?". She suggests that the underlying cause of state troubles are false premises. False beliefs lead to malformed political organizations. Interestingly, Hitler's "Mein Kampf" was released in the same year, addressing questions similar to Stein's, but with very different answers. Stein perceives humanity as one great individual, that we are all part of one another.

Between 1926 and 1933, she gave many published talks, and was known as a proponent of educational reform. Reform had to occur within community life, and without social preparation, the final "goal" is not attainable. Stein considered union with God to be the final goal. While we are all part of one great human "body", we also have unique characteristics, which makes us "singular". However Stein warned against extremes in espousing individualism or socialism. Individualism taken to an extreme allows for the serving of the individual only, and brings about the dissolution of community. Extreme socialism supports only the community and sacrifices the individual. The consequence of the latter would be a lack of independent thinking and creativity--mass produced people and views.

Stein felt good theory was needed to provide recovery. Community is "willed by and founded in God", and whoever harms one member harms all the others. The question in such cases is what is lacking--is it self-knowledge, or knowledge of others? In any event, people cut themselves off if they fail to find community. Stein felt that family and school were the foundations of community, and were the seeds of community growth. Unfortunately, marriage often ends up being either a business deal that ends when it becomes unprofitable, or a legal way to satisfy drives that ends when it no longer does so. In both cases, children are seen as unfortunate accidents, and this is detrimental to developing a healthy sense of community. Neither case of marriage is "true" marriage. Teachers also serve an important role in the community, and are crucial in building community-oriented sentiment in young people.

Stein belonged to a women's suffrage group for a time, and was involved in politics, but eventually left to do more writing. She spoke out against the then-rising National Socialism, suggesting that they did not treat women with equal respect--they only valued their "biological" function. She asked for an audience with the Pope, asking him to speak out against National Socialism, but the audience was not granted. She then wrote him a letter, asking him to speak out. He sent her a blessing, but never did what she asked. Stein eventually joined a Carmelite order of nuns in Germany, but moved to Holland when the National Socialists took over, to avoid creating trouble for her fellow Carmelites. When the Nazis took over Holland, she did not attempt to hide from them any longer.

"Did Saint Paul Think Jesus was the Messiah? A Curious Historical Placeholder in the Modern Discussion of the Jewish Christian Dialogue" -- Matthew V. Novenson, Princeton Theological Seminary

This question about Saint Paul functions as a placeholder for many other questions about Jewish/Christian relations. Readers interpret Biblical texts for their own reasons. Paul's interpreters have been largely Christian, and largely Protestant, and indeed Protestant theology is often Pauline theology. However, as no two interpretations are ever alike, scholars are left to contend with a "variety of Pauls" in Biblical exegesis, and to battle distortions of his writings. Ideology and history often bleed together, and Paul is "what his interpreters need him to be."

Mr. Novenson then discussed the Jewishness of both Jesus and Paul. He brought up the old, rather over-simplified notion of the "Hellenic vs. the Hebraic" as a sort of dualism between Jewish thought and classical philosophical thought. Many writers, wishing to distance Jesus and Paul from Judaism, inflated Hellenistic traits and downplayed Jewish ones. Some writers even tried to suggest that Jesus was not really Jewish, or at least not the Jewish Messiah. These writers argue that concept of Jesus as Messiah came later in Christian history. Mr. Novenson cites the work of Bauer, suggesting that Paul recognizes Jesus as the "Christ", not simply the Messiah of the Jews. He represents a "Gentile" version of Christianity, as Peter represents a "Jewish" version. Bauer's view carried over into the 20th century---the idea that the "dogmatic Messiah" of the Jews was fettered to a country and a people, while the "spiritual Christ" had no such confines.

The Holocaust brought about a re-evaluation of Christian attitudes towards Jews. Some writers claim that anti-Jewish rhetoric began in the Medieval period, but anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the first century, to the New Testament itself, and that Paul is as guilty as any other. However, lest the New Testament be degraded as anti-Semitic, writers Gaston & Gager, and Stendall, point to Romans 9 through 11, suggesting that Paul is saying the Israelites will be saved--but not by Jesus. The absence of Jesus's mention here is noteworthy, because it leaves a space for Christians to abandon missionary attitudes toward the Church. Once again, Paul becomes what his interpreters need him to be.


"Indigenous Christianity and Social Change in Kenya: The Case of Johera" -- George F. Pickens, Messiah College

Christianity has been credited with bringing about positive social change, but also with spreading the evils of colonialism. Christianity is perceived as being able to manage social change, and this may explain its exponential growth in Africa. Mr. Pickens gives the example of the Nyanza Province in Kenya, where an indigenous form of Christianity was created in response to the Mau Mau Rebellion and the crises that developed out of the East African Revival.

The Nyanza Region was colonized by the British as a mercantile right-of-way, but soon settlers came when they realized it was a fertile region. Anglican CMS missionaries came in 1906 to establish schools and evangelize--and they ended up baptizing the locals in droves. While this initially seemed like a blessing, it was also a curse. Christianity was seen as a very individualistic religion, and disrupted the community ideal. Ethnicity, which used to be the identifying factor, was replaced by religion as the main identifier, and it ended up dividing the community. Later, with the Mau Mau Rebellion, many Africans from the Nyanza Province were brought in to tend to white settlers' farms. There was a change in labor laws that led to the neglect of African farms and the support of white-owned farms. This further fragmented communities as men traveled far to work, and this isolated them from their families. They were mistreated by their new employers, and when they complained to the Anglican Church they looked to, they were met with silence. This created disillusionment with missionary Christianity, and the Johera movement was born. There ended up being 16,000 Johera adherents, and 130 churches. Johera was an indigenous form of Christianity that merged local values with Christian beliefs. Mr. Pickens notes that the Johera movement seems to be dying out now, but it served its purpose in healing a fragmented community.